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Definitions
A
Adaptation
The degree to which adjustments are possible in practices, processes, structures or systems in response to projected or actual changes in climate. Adaptation activities contribute to the mitigation of the effects of climate change on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, hydrology and water resources management, agriculture and forestry, human infrastructure and human health. Examples of adaptation activities include introducing different crops to compensate to local climate change and protection of coastal areas from sea-level rise.
Aerosols
Particles of matter, solid or liquid, larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere. Natural sources include salt particles from sea spray and clay particles as a result of weathering of rocks, both of which are carried upward by the wind. Aerosols can also originate as a result of human activities and in this case are often considered pollutants.
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)
The group of Pacific and Caribbean nations that are calling for relatively fast action by developed nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The AOSIS reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2005.countries fear the effects of rising sea levels and increased storm activity predicted to accompany global warming. Their want to hold Annex I Parties to a 20 per cent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2005.
Annex A
Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol lists the greenhouse gases regulated by the Protocol as well as sector/source categories.
Annex B
Since the Kyoto Protocol is a legal instrument that must be ratified separately, a new list of countries taking on legally binding commitments along with a listing of their actual commitments was created. Annex B lists the quantified emission limitation and reduction commitment for each country.
Annex I Parties
Industrialised countries that, as parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, have pledged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2000 to 1990 levels. Annex I Parties consist of countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and countries designated as 'economies in transition'.
Annex II Parties
List established under the UNFCCC of industrialised countries, excluding economies in transition, that are to provide new and additional resources to help developing countries meet existing commitments under the UNFCCC.
Anthropogenic
Derived from human activities.
B
Base Year
According to the IPCC, the base year is that year for which a national inventory is to be taken, which is currently 1990 for Annex I countries. In some cases (such as estimating methane from rice production) the base year is simply the middle of a three-year period over which an average must be taken. A base year may also be used as a reference for establishing an emissions baseline. Under the Kyoto Protocol, the base year for hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride is 1995.
C
Carbon Cycle
The group of Pacific and Caribbean nations that are calling for relatively fast action by developed nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The AOSIS reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2005.countries fear the effects of rising sea levels and increased storm activity predicted to accompany global warming. Their want to hold Annex I Parties to a 20 per cent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2005.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
The greenhouse gas whose concentration is being most affected directly by human activities. Carbon dioxide also serves as the reference to compare all other greenhouse gases (see carbon dioxide equivalents). The major source of carbon dioxide emissions is fossil fuel combustion. Carbon dioxide emissions are also a product of forest clearing, biomass burning, and non-energy production processes such as cement production. Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have been increasing at a rate of about 0.5 per cent per year, and are now about 30 per cent above pre-industrial levels.
Carbon Sequestration
The uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and plants, for example, absorb carbon dioxide, release the oxygen and store the carbon. Fossil fuels were at one time biomass and continue to store the carbon until burned.
Carbon Sinks
Carbon reservoirs and conditions that take in and store more carbon (carbon sequestration) than they release. Carbon sinks can serve to partially offset greenhouse gas emissions. Forests and oceans are common carbon sinks.
Carbon source
A reservoir that gives up carbon to another reservoir within the carbon cycle. For example, if the net exchange is between the biosphere and the atmosphere is towards the ocean, then the atmosphere is the source.
Carbon Stock
Carbon stocks include carbon stored in vegetation (above and below ground), decomposing matter, soil, wood products and the carbon substituted by burning wood for energy instead of fossil fuels.
Chlorofluorocarbons (and related compounds)
A family of anthropogenic compounds that includes chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), bromofluorcarbons (halons), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These compounds have been shown to deplete stratospheric ozone, and therefore are typically referred to as ozone depleting substances. The most ozone-depleting of these compounds are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol.
Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM)
Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol provides for the CDM, which would enable developed countries to invest in emissions reducing projects in developing countries in order to obtain credit to put towards meeting their assigned targets. The details of the CDM have yet to be negotiated, but in principle allows countries to use credits obtained from the year 2000 to meet their Kyoto targets, if they choose to do so.
Climate Change
(Also referred to as 'global climate change'). This term is sometimes used to refer to all forms of climatic inconsistency, But as the Earth's climate is never static, the term is more properly used to imply a significant change from one climatic condition to another. In some cases, ‘climate change' has been used synonymously with the term, 'global warming'. Scientists, however, tend to use the term in the wider sense to also include natural changes in climate.
Climate Feedback
An atmospheric, oceanic, terrestrial, or other process that is activated by the direct climate change induced by changes in radiative forcing (q.v.). Climate feedbacks may increase (positive feedback) or diminish (negative feedback) the magnitude of the direct climate change.
Climate Model
A quantitative way of representing the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. Models can range from relatively simple to quite comprehensive.
Conference of the Parties (COP)
The collection of nations that have ratified the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), that was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The COP currently has more than 150 countries represented, and about 50 additional observer states. Its primary role is to keep the implementation of the Convention under review and to take the decisions necessary for the effective implementation of the Convention.
D
Deforestation
The practices or processes that result in the change of forested lands to non-forest uses. This is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect, on the grounds that the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide, and that trees that once removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis are no longer present and contributing to carbon storage.
E
El Niño
A climatic phenomenon occurring irregularly, but generally every 3 to 5 years. El Niños often first become evident during the Christmas season (El Nino means Christ child) in the surface oceans of the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. The phenomenon involves seasonal changes in the direction of the tropical winds over the Pacific and abnormally warm surface ocean temperatures. The changes in the tropics are most intense in the Pacific region; these changes can disrupt weather patterns throughout the tropics and can extend to higher latitudes, especially in Central and North America. The relationship between these events and global weather patterns are currently the subject of much research in order to enhance prediction of seasonal to interannual fluctuations in the climate.
Emission Quota
The portion or share of total allowable emissions assigned to a country or a group of countries within a framework of maximum total emissions and mandatory allocations of resources assessments.
Emission Trading
The Kyoto Protocol allows Parties listed in Annex B to participate in trading of their assigned amounts for the purposes of fulfilling their emissions commitments. Parties buying parts of assigned amounts can add these to their assigned amounts under the Protocol, while Parties selling must deduct them. Such trading must be supplemental to domestic actions. The COP is to define the rules and modalities for trading.
F
Flexibility Mechanisms
Refers to the three cooperative implementation mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol (Joint Implementation, International Emissions Trading and Clean Development Mechanism) including the notion of differentiated commitments.
Forcing Mechanism
A process that alters the energy balance of the climate system, in other words changes the relative balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation from Earth. Such mechanisms include changes in solar irradiance, volcanic eruptions, and enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect by emission of carbon dioxide. See also Radiative Forcing.
Fossil Fuel
A general term for combustible geologic deposits of carbon in reduced (organic) form and of biological origin, including coal, oil, natural gas, oil shales, and tar sands. A major concern is that such fuels emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when burnt, thus significantly contributing to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC)
The international treaty unveiled at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also known as the ‘Rio Summit’), in June 1992. The FCCC commits signatory countries to stabilise anthropogenic (q.v.) greenhouse gas emissions to 'levels that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system'. It also requires that all signatory parties develop and update national inventories of anthropogenic emissions of all greenhouse gases not otherwise controlled by the Montreal Protocol.
G
General Circulation Model (GCM)
A global, three-dimensional computer model of the climate system that can be used to simulate human-induced climate change. GCMs are highly complex, and represent the effects of such factors as reflective and absorptive properties of atmospheric water vapour, greenhouse gas concentrations, clouds, annual and daily solar heating, ocean temperatures and ice boundaries. The most recent GCMs include global representations of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface.
Global Environment Facility (GEF)
A global, three-dimensional computer model of the climate system that can be used to simulate human-induced climate change. GCMs are highly complex, and represent the effects of such factors as reflective and absorptive properties of atmospheric water vapour, greenhouse gas concentrations, clouds, annual and daily solar heating, ocean temperatures and ice boundaries. The most recent GCMs include global representations of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface.
Global Warming
An increase in the near-surface temperature of the Earth. Global warming has occurred in the distant past as the result of natural influences, but the term is most often used to refer to the warming predicted to occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases. Scientists generally agree that the Earth's surface has warmed by about 1 degree Fahrenheit in the past 140 years. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change recently concluded that increased concentrations of greenhouse gases are causing an increase in the Earth's surface temperature and that increased concentrations of sulphate aerosols have led to relative cooling in some regions, generally over and downwind of heavily industrialised areas.
Greenhouse Effect
The effect produced as greenhouse gases allow incoming solar radiation to pass through the Earth's atmosphere, but prevent most of the outgoing infra-red radiation from the surface and lower atmosphere from escaping into outer space. This process occurs naturally and has kept the Earth's temperature about 59 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than it would otherwise be. Current life on Earth could not be sustained without the natural greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse Gas
Any gas that absorbs infra-red radiation in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, halogenated fluorocarbons, ozone, perfluorinated carbons, and hydrofluorocarbons.
Group of 77 (and China)
Main negotiating group of developing countries within the UN system. Its seeks to harmonise the negotiating positions of more than 130 developing-country members.
H
Hot Air
Term developed by the NGO community to describe the difference in emissions reductions according to the established base year agreed to under the Kyoto Protocol, and actual emissions reductions as a result of reasons unrelated to climate mitigation, such as changes in the economies of Russia and other economies in transition.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
These chemicals (along with perfluorocarbons) were introduced as alternatives to ozone depleting substances in serving many industrial, commercial, and personal needs. HFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. They do not significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful greenhouse gases with global warming potentials.
I
Infra-red Radiation
The heat energy emitted from all solids, liquids, and gases. In the context of the greenhouse issue, the term refers to the heat energy emitted by the Earth's surface and its atmosphere. Greenhouse gases strongly absorb this radiation in the Earth's atmosphere, and re-radiate some back towards the surface, creating the greenhouse effect.
Integrated Assessment
A method of analysis that combines results and models from the physical, biological, economic and social sciences, and the interactions between these components, in a consistent framework, to project the consequences of climate change and the policy responses to it. [Source: IPCC]
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
The IPCC was established jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988. Its purpose is to assess information in the scientific and technical literature related to all significant components of the issue of climate change. The IPCC draws upon hundreds of expert scientists as authors and thousands as expert reviewers. Leading experts on climate change and environmental, social, and economic sciences from some 60 nations have helped the IPCC to prepare periodic assessments of the scientific underpinnings for understanding global climate change and its consequences. With its capacity for reporting on climate change, its consequences, and the viability of adaptation and mitigation measures, the IPCC is also looked to as the official advisory body to the world's governments on the state of the science of the climate change issue. [Source: IPCC]
J
Joint Implementation
The process permitted under the Kyoto Protocol (q.v.) under which developed countries can invest in projects in other developed countries to acquire credits to assists in meeting their assigned target reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Countries can only use credits generated in the commitment period of 2008 to 2012. Participation is voluntary.
K
Kyoto Protocol
The international agreement, reached in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, which extends the commitments of the UNFCCC originally made at the Earth Summit in 1992. In particular, it sets targets for future emissions of greenhouse gases by the developed countries.
M
Methane
A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas with a significant global warming potential. Methane is produced through anaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition of waste in landfills, animal digestion, decomposition of animal wastes, production and distribution of natural gas and oil, coal production , and incomplete fossil fuel combustion. The atmospheric concentration of methane has been shown to be increasing at a rate of about 0.6 per cent per year and the concentration of about 1.7 parts per million by volume is more than twice its pre-industrial value. However, the rate of increase of methane in the atmosphere may be stabilising.
Mitigation
An anthropogenic (i.e. derived from human activities) intervention to reduce the emissions or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.
N
Nitrous Oxide
A powerful greenhouse gas, whose major sources include soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.
No Regrets
This is the term used to describe measures whose benefits — such as improved performance or reduced emissions of local/regional pollutants, but excluding the benefits of climate change mitigation — equal or exceed their costs. [Source: IPCC]
O
Ozone
An important greenhouse gas that consists of three atoms of oxygen bonded together, in contrast to normal atmospheric oxygen that consists of two atoms of oxygen. Ozone is found in both the stratosphere (about 90 per cent of the total atmospheric loading) and the troposphere (about 10 per cent). In the stratosphere, ozone also provides a protective layer shielding the Earth from ultraviolet radiation and subsequent harmful health effect on humans and the environment. In the troposphere, oxygen molecules in ozone combine with other chemicals and gases to cause smog.
P
Particulates
Tiny pieces of solid or liquid matter, such as soot, dust, fumes, or mist, that can be suspended in the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants use light to synthesise organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water. In the process oxygen and water are released. Increased levels of carbon dioxide can increase net photosynthesis in some plants. Plants create a very important reservoir for carbon dioxide.
Precautionary Approach
The approach promoted under the Framework Convention of Climate Change to help achieve stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system. The ‘precautionary principle’ is often used to describe a strategy which is based on the argument that the potential price of not taking action can outweigh the cost of taken an action, even when scientific uncertainty exists about the need and likely outcome.
R
Radiation
Energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. Radiation has differing characteristics depending upon the wavelength. As the radiation from the Sun is relatively energetic, it has a short wavelength (ultra-violet, visible, and near infra-red); energy re-radiated from the Earth's surface and the atmosphere has a longer wavelength (infra-red radiation) as the Earth is cooler than the Sun.
Radiative Damping
An imposed positive radiative forcing (q.v.) on the Earth-atmosphere system - for example, through the addition of greenhouse gases - that represents an energy surplus. The temperature of the surface and lower atmosphere will then increase and in turn increase the amount of infrared radiation being emitted into space, thus establishing a new energy balance. The amount that emissions of infrared radiation to space increases for a given increase in temperature is known as the radiative damping. [Source: IPCC]
Radiative Forcing
A change in the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infra-red radiation. Without any radiative forcing, solar radiation coming to the Earth would continue to be approximately equal to the infra-red radiation emitted from the Earth. The addition of greenhouse gases traps an increased fraction of the infra-red radiation, re-radiating it back toward the surface and creating a warming influence.
Ratification
After signing the Convention of the Kyoto Protocol, a country must ratify it, often with the approval of its parliament or other legislature. The instrument of ratification must be deposited with the depository (in this case, the UN Secretary-General) to begin the 90-day countdown to becoming a Party.
S
Subsidiary body
A committee that assists the conference of the parties. Two permanent ones are defined by the Convention on Climate Change: the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA).
Sulphate Aerosol
Particulate matter that consists of compounds of sulphur formed by the interaction of sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide with other compounds in the atmosphere. Sulphate aerosols are injected into the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels and the eruption of volcanoes like Mt. Pinatubo. Recent theory suggests that sulphate aerosols may lower the earth's temperature by reflecting away solar radiation (a process known as negative radiative forcing). Global Climate Models (q.v.) which incorporate the effects of sulphate aerosols more accurately predict global temperature variations.
T
Technology Transfer
The broad set of processes covering the exchange of knowledge, money and goods amongst different stakeholders that leads to the spreading of technology for adapting to or mitigating climate change.
Trace Gas
Any of the less common gases found in the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen, and argon make up more than 99 percent of the Earth's atmosphere. Other gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, oxides of nitrogen, ozone, and ammonia, are considered trace gases. Although relatively unimportant in terms of their absolute volume, they have significant effects on the Earth's weather and climate.
Troposphere
The lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from the Earth's surface up to about 10-15 km.
U
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The international treaty signed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in June 1992. The UNFCCC commits signatory countries to stabilise anthropogenic (i.e. human-induced) greenhouse gas emissions to levels that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The UNFCCC also requires that all signatory parties develop and update national inventories of anthropogenic emissions of all greenhouse gases not otherwise controlled by the Montreal Protocol.
V
Voluntary Measures
Measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that are adopted by firms or other actors in the absence of government mandates. Voluntary measures help make climate-friendly products or processes more readily available or encourage consumers to incorporate environmental values in their market choices.
Vulnerability
The degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, injury, damage or harm.
W
Water Vapour
The most abundant greenhouse gas, water vapour is the water present in the atmosphere in gaseous form. Water vapour is an important part of the natural greenhouse effect. Although humans are not significantly increasing its concentration, it contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect because the warming influence of greenhouse gases leads to a positive water vapour feedback. Water vapour also plays an important role in regulating the temperature of the planet, as clouds form when excess water vapour in the atmosphere condenses to form ice and water droplets, and precipitation (such as rain and snow).
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