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Definitions
A list of terms related to Bird flu.
A
Absorptive capacity
The ability to identify, assimilate and apply useful external knowledge, such as operational, design, scientific and technological knowledge (see also learning/technological learning and technological capabilities).
Adenovirus
A group of viruses that cause respiratory tract and eye infections and are relatives of the common cold virus; researchers are using adenoviruses in attempts to make recombinant influenza vaccines.
Adjuvant
A chemical that is added to vaccines to increase their effectiveness; it allows researchers to reduce the amount of antigen that needs to be put into a vaccine.
AI
See avian influenza.
Amantadine
An antiviral drug approved by the US Food and Drug Association in 1976 to treat influenza A in adults. Some reports say amantadine was used to treat poultry in China for avian influenza, which may have led to the emergence of H5N1 virus strains that are resistant to the drug. It is structurally similar to rimantadine and is sold under the brand names Symmetrel and Amentrel.
Antibody
A molecule produced by the immune system that helps fight infections. The structure of each antibody allows it to interact with a specific antigen. The interaction between an antibody-antigen pair is described as 'binding'.
Antigen
A substance that is foreign to the body and that prompts the immune system to fight infection. They form the active ingredient of vaccines.
Antiviral drug
A class of drugs used to kill viruses.
Applied research
Original investigation undertaken to acquire new knowledge, but directed primarily towards a specific practical objective (see also research and development) (FM).
Avian influenza
A disease affecting birds, caused by an influenza virus first identified more than 100 years ago. Avian influenza can be caused by any one of several dozen influenza viruses. The recent outbreaks in Asia, however, have been largely caused by a highly contagious and virulent strain, known as H5N1.
B
Basic research
Experimental or theoretical investigation undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view (see also research and development) (FM).
Baxter Healthcare Corporation
A pharmaceutical company. Baxter is producing a candidate vaccine against the H5N1 avian influenza virus, and has a contract with the UK government to produce two million doses for its stockpile (announced 24 February 2006). Baxter has developed a seasonal flu vaccine using a cell-based production system, but clinical trials in Europe were suspended when the candidate vaccine was found to cause fever in more trial participants than was expected.
Bird flu
Common name for avian influenza.
C
CDC
See Centres for Disease Control.
Cell-based vaccine production
A system for producing vaccines that uses cell cultures. Traditionally, influenza vaccines are produced using eggs (see egg-based vaccine production) but this takes considerably more time and space than a cell-based system would. Influenza vaccines made using cell-based systems are still undergoing research and it could be several years before the first makes it to the market.
Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP)
The Center for Infectious Disease Research & Policy is affiliated to the University of Minnesota, United States, and aims to promote public health preparedness. www.cidrap.umn.edu
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Part of the US government's Department of Health and Human Services. The CDC conducts research and takes action to prevent and control infectious and chronic diseases, injuries, workplace hazards, disabilities and environmental health threats. www.cdc.gov
Chiron Corporation
A pharmaceutical company. Chiron is working on a candidate H5N1 vaccine and a candidate H9N2 vaccine. Chiron is producing the H5N1 vaccine for the United States government stockpile. The company is also researching an H5N1 vaccine produced using a cell-based system. www.chiron.com
Chiron Corporation
A pharmaceutical company. Chiron is working on a candidate H5N1 vaccine and a candidate H9N2 vaccine. Chiron is producing the H5N1 vaccine for the United States government stockpile. The company is also researching an H5N1 vaccine produced using a cell-based system. www.chiron.com [link: http://www.chiron.com]
CIDRAP
See Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy.
CIDRAP
See Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy.
Clinical trial
Research that tests how safe and effective a new drug, vaccine or other medical device is in humans. Clinical trials happen in three phases. Phase I trials test the safety of the new device in a small number of people. Phase II trials test the safety in a large number of people. Phase III trials test the device's efficacy.
Clinical trial
Research that tests how safe and effective a new drug, vaccine or other medical device is in humans. Clinical trials happen in three phases. Phase I trials test the safety of the new device in a small number of people. Phase II trials test the safety in a large number of people. Phase III trials test the device's efficacy.
Codified knowledge
Knowledge that can be transmitted in formal language in written documents patents, mathematical expressions, designs, and scientific journals (see also tacit knowledge) (ECC).
Cull (to cull)
To kill a large number of animals; one of the methods used to prevent the spread of bird flu.
D
Design
An essential part of the innovation process that covers plans and drawings; technical specifications; and operational features necessary for the conception, development, manufacturing and marketing of new products and processes. Design may be a part of the initial conception of the product or process, i.e. research and experimental development, but it is also part of tooling-up, industrial engineering, manufacturing start-up, and marketing of new products (see also research and development and non-R&D innovation activities) (FM).
Diffusion
The way that new or improved products and processes spread — through market or non-market channels — from their first worldwide implementation to different countries and regions, as well as to different industries, markets and firms (OM).
DNA
The genetic material of living organisms. It is a large, double-stranded, helical molecule that encodes genetic information, including instructions for growth, development, and replication. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.
DNA
The genetic material of living organisms. It is a large, double-stranded, helical molecule that encodes genetic information, including instructions for growth, development, and replication. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.
E
Egg-based vaccine production
The traditional method for producing influenza vaccines. Influenza virus is injected into eggs, where it replicates. It is later harvested and used to make vaccine. This method is criticised for being slow and cumbersome. Compare to cell-based vaccine production and recombinant vaccines.
Endemic
Relating to a disease that is constantly present in an area or particular to persons in such an area.
Epidemiology
The study of epidemics and the diseases that cause them, especially the factors that influence the incidence, distribution and control of infectious diseases.
Experimental development
Systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from both research and practical experience, that is directed at producing new materials, products and devices; at installing new processes, systems and services; or at improving substantially those that have already been produced or installed (see also research and development) (FM).
F
FAO
See Food and Agriculture Organization.
Flu
Common name for influenza.
Flu
Common name for influenza.
Food and Agriculture Organization
United Nations agency concerned with food and agriculture, which aims to raise living standards and eliminate hunger by improving the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food and agricultural products. www.fao.org
Food and Agriculture Organization
United Nations agency concerned with food and agriculture, which aims to raise living standards and eliminate hunger by improving the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food and agricultural products. www.fao.org [link: http://www.fao.org]
Foreign direct investment
An investment by companies and organisations which results in the setting up or acquisition of production facilities in a foreign country (host country).
Framework conditions
National institutional and structural factors (e.g. legal, economic, financial, and educational) that set the rules and range of opportunities for innovation (OM).
G
Galactose
A type of sugar and part of the system that helps the H5N1 virus enter the cells they infect: the influenza virus's haemagglutinin protein attaches to galactose molecules on the surface of the cells it seeks to infect.
Galactose
A type of sugar and part of the system that helps the H5N1 virus enter the cells they infect: the influenza virus's haemagglutinin protein attaches to galactose molecules on the surface of the cells it seeks to infect.
Genotype Z
Since 2002, the dominant form of the H5N1 virus in Asia. See Bird flu 'could pose global threat to humans'.
GlaxoSmithKline
A large multinational pharmaceutical company, headquartered in the United Kingdom. GlaxoSmithKline is involved in the production of an H5N1 vaccine, and produces anti-flu drug zanamivir under the tradename Relenza. www.gsk.com
GSK
See GlaxoSmithKline.
GSK
See GlaxoSmithKline.
H
H1N1
The influenza A virus that triggered the 1918 flu pandemic, also known as 'Spanish flu'. H1 refers to the type of haemagglutinin protein the virus carries, while N1 describes its neuraminidase protein.
H1N1
The influenza A virus that triggered the 1918 flu pandemic, also known as 'Spanish flu'. H1 refers to the type of haemagglutinin protein the virus carries, while N1 describes its neuraminidase protein.
H2N2
The virus that caused the 1957 influenza pandemic, often called the 'Asian influenza pandemic'. H2N2 went on to cause annual flu epidemics until 1968, when it vanished after the emergence of the H3N2 virus. As a result, people born after 1968 are expected to have limited or no immunity to H2N2. H2 refers to the type of haemagglutinin protein the virus carries, while N2 describes its neuraminidase protein.
H3N2
The virus that caused the 1968 influenza pandemic called 'Hong Kong influenza'. The H3N2 virus still circulates, causing seasonal flu. H3 refers to the type of haemagglutinin protein the virus carries, while N2 describes its neuraminidase protein.
H5
Refers to the type of haemagglutinin (or 'HA') protein carried by the H5N1 avian flu virus. Together with the neuraminidase protein, the type of HA protein on a virus helps scientists identify which virus they are dealing with.
H5
Refers to the type of haemagglutinin (or 'HA') protein carried by the H5N1 avian flu virus. Together with the neuraminidase protein, the type of HA protein on a virus helps scientists identify which virus they are dealing with.
H5N1
An influenza A virus that first emerged in people in China in 1997 and has since become endemic in Asia. At the time of writing (May 2006), the virus had spread to Africa, Europe and the Middle East. The H5N1 virus spreads easily between birds. It rarely infects humans, but kills about half the people it does infect.
HA
See haemagglutinin.
Haemagglutinin
One of three proteins that sticks out from the shell of influenza viruses, the other two being neuraminidase and the M2 protein. Haemagglutinin allows the virus to bind to the cells it infects.
Haemagglutinin
One of three proteins that sticks out from the shell of influenza viruses, the other two being neuraminidase and the M2 protein. Haemagglutinin allows the virus to bind to the cells it infects.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza
Refers to an avian influenza virus that is particularly apt at causing disease. H5N1 is an example of a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus.
Hong Kong influenza
A pandemic of influenza A virus that happened in 1968, was caused by the H3N2 virus and was thought to have originated in Hong Kong. The World Health Organization estimates that 1-4 million people died during this pandemic.
Hong Kong influenza
A pandemic of influenza A virus that happened in 1968, was caused by the H3N2 virus and was thought to have originated in Hong Kong. The World Health Organization estimates that 1-4 million people died during this pandemic.
HPAI
See highly pathogenic avian influenza.
I
Immune
A person or animal is said to be immune to a virus, bacterium or any other agent that can trigger disease when infection by that agent does not result in the animal or person falling ill.
Immune system
The body's system of defence against disease that involves recognising and attacking 'foreign' invaders such as bacteria and viruses.
Immunity
The state of not being susceptible to disease; being able to resist disease. An effective vaccine gives a person or animal immunity to a disease.
Influenza
A common and highly contagious viral disease characterised by headaches, fever, inflammation of the respiratory tract, muscular aches and pains, weakness, and coughing. It often causes epidemics.
Influenza
A common and highly contagious viral disease characterised by headaches, fever, inflammation of the respiratory tract, muscular aches and pains, weakness, and coughing. It often causes epidemics.
Influenza A
One of three types of viruses responsible for flu. Influenza A viruses primarily infect animals other than humans. The other two types are influenza B and influenza C.
L
Live attenuated vaccine
A type of vaccine made from a pathogen that has been altered so it no longer causes disease.
Live attenuated vaccine
A type of vaccine made from a pathogen that has been altered so it no longer causes disease.
Live vaccine
A type of vaccine that contains a live pathogen. Live vaccines are more effective than vaccines containing dead pathogens because live pathogens can replicate after the vaccine has been injected, which amplifies their effect.
M
M2 protein
One of three proteins that stick out from the surface of influenza viruses, the other two being haemagglutinin and neuraminidase. The M2 protein moves ions in and out of the virus.
MDCK cell
Abbreviation for Madin Darby canine kidney cell. A type of dog kidney cell used in cell-based vaccine production.
Mutation
A change in genetic material. Mutations occur naturally, but they can also be triggered by exposure to radiation or chemicals.
Mutation
A change in genetic material. Mutations occur naturally, but they can also be triggered by exposure to radiation or chemicals.
N
NA
See neuraminidase.
NA
See neuraminidase.
National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (NIBSC)
A UK laboratory, affiliated to the World Health Organization, that aims to protect and improve public health by standardising and controlling biological products used in medicine. www.nibsc.ac.uk
National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (NIBSC)
A UK laboratory, affiliated to the World Health Organization, that aims to protect and improve public health by standardising and controlling biological products used in medicine.www.nibsc.ac.uk [link: http://www.nibsc.ac.uk]
National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)
Part of the US National Institutes of Health, it conducts and supports basic and applied research to better understand, treat, and prevent infectious disease and allergies. www3.niaid.nih.gov
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
The main US agency that funds and conducts biomedical research. www.nih.gov
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
The main US agency that funds and conducts biomedical research. www.nih.gov [link: http://www.nih.gov]
Neuraminidase
One of three proteins that stick out from the shell of influenza viruses, the other two being haemagglutinin and the M2 protein. After the virus has replicated inside an infected cell, neuraminidase helps the virus cut its way out of the cell.
Neuraminidase inhibitor
A type of anti-flu drug that inhibits the function of neuraminidase.
Neuraminidase inhibitor
A type of anti-flu drug that inhibits the function of neuraminidase.
NIAID
See National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases.
NIBSC
See National Institute for Biological Standards and Control.
NIBSC
See National Institute for Biological Standards and Control.
NIH
See National Institutes of Health.
O
OIE
See World Organisation for Animal Health.
Osletamivir
A neuraminidase inhibitor used to both treat and protect against influenza A and influenza B. It was developed by Gilead Sciences and is currently marketed by Hoffman La Roche (Roche) under the trade name Tamiflu.
Osletamivir
A neuraminidase inhibitor used to both treat and protect against influenza A and influenza B. It was developed by Gilead Sciences and is currently marketed by Hoffman La Roche (Roche) under the trade name Tamiflu.
Outbreak
A sudden appearance of a disease in a specific geographic area. Smaller than an epidemic or a pandemic.
P
Pandemic
An epidemic occurring over a large area, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting many people. A global epidemic.
Pandemic
An epidemic occurring over a large area, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting many people. A global epidemic.
Pathogenic
Capable of causing disease.
PER.C6 cell
A type of human retinal cell that is used in cell-based vaccine production. Sanofi-aventis has produced an experimental seasonal flu vaccine using PER.C6 cells.
R
Reagents
A substance used in a chemical reaction to detect, measure or produce other substances.
Reassortment
Refers to the exchange of genetic information between two organisms, such as two influenza viruses. A type of recombination.
Reassortment
Refers to the exchange of genetic information between two organisms, such as two influenza viruses. A type of recombination.
Recombinant vaccine
A type of vaccine that contains a genetically modified pathogen. For instance, researchers in the United States have made an experimental flu vaccine from an adenovirus that was modified to include a piece of the H5N1 virus.
Recombination
Refers to the exchange of genetic information between two organisms. In the context of laboratory research, recombination is one way of genetically engineering an organism (see recombinant vaccine).
Recombination
Refers to the exchange of genetic information between two organisms. In the context of laboratory research, recombination is one way of genetically engineering an organism (see recombinant vaccine).
Relenza
see Zanamivir
Relenza
see Zanamivir
Replicate
To copy. Once they have infected cells, viruses replicate, producing multiple copies of themselves which then go on to infect more cells.
Rimantadine
A drug used to treat and, in rare cases, prevent influenza A. Rimantadine's structure is similar to that of amantadine. It is sold under the brand name Flumadine, manufactured by Forest Pharmaceuticals, and was approved by the US Food and Drug Association in 1994.
RNA
A form of genetic material related to DNA. Unlike DNA, RNA is single-stranded. It acts as a go-between for DNA and the proteins it encodes for. 'RNA' stands for 'ribonucleic acid'.
S
Sanofi-aventis
The third largest pharmaceutical company in the world. Its vaccines business Sanofi Pasteur is a major player in flu vaccine production. en.sanofi-aventis.com/index.asp
Seasonal flu vaccine
A vaccine, produced fresh each year, that protects against that year's strain of influenza. Different types of influenza viruses and different variants within virus types circulate each year.
Seasonal flu vaccine
A vaccine, produced fresh each year, that protects against that year's strain of influenza. Different types of influenza viruses and different variants within virus types circulate each year.
Spanish Flu
The Spanish Flu Pandemic, also known as 'The Great Influenza Pandemic', and 'La Grippe' killed 20-50 million people between 1918 and 1919. It was the most deadly flu pandemic in human history, and was triggered by the influenza A virus H1N1.
Split inactivated vaccine
A type of vaccine containing fragments of the pathogen it protects against
Stockpile
An accumulation of drugs or vaccines saved for future use.
T
Tamiflu
Roche's trade name for oseltamivir.
Tamiflu
Roche's trade name for oseltamivir.
V
Vaccine
A substance containing dead or weakened pathogens, or parts of them, that is used to prepare a person's immune system against future infection by the pathogen.
Vero cell
Cells derived from the kidneys of the African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops). The cells are used in laboratories as host cells for growing viruses that can be used for drug testing or to make vaccines.
Virulence
The ability of a virus or a bacterium to cause damage to its host.
Virulence
The ability of a virus or a bacterium to cause damage to its host
Virus
A small parasitic particle that can reproduce only by invading and taking over cells in plants, animals or bacteria.
W
WHO
see World Health Organization
Whole inactivated vaccine
A vaccine made from a pathogen that has been inactivated or killed in some way.
Whole inactivated vaccine
A vaccine made from a pathogen that has been inactivated or killed in some way.
World Health Organization (WHO)
A United Nations agency set up in 1948 to promote international cooperation to improve human health and quality of life.
World Health Organization (WHO)
A United Nations agency set up in 1948 to promote international cooperation to improve human health and quality of life.
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)
An intergovernmental organisation founded in 1924 to control contagious animals and zoonotic diseases. It determines animal health standards for international trade and advises veterinary services in member countries.
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)
An intergovernmental organisation founded in 1924 to control contagious animals and zoonotic diseases. It determines animal health standards for international trade and advises veterinary services in member countries.
Z
Zanamivir
A neuraminidase inhibitor used to both treat and protect against influenza A and influenza B. It is currently marketed by GlaxoSmithKline under the trade name Relenza.
Zanamivir
A neuraminidase inhibitor used to both treat and protect against influenza A and influenza B. It is currently marketed by GlaxoSmithKline under the trade name Relenza.
Zoonotic disease
Any disease that can be passed from animals to people; also called a zoonosis.
